Ecclesiastes Essay Example

Ecclesiastes Essay Example Ecclesiastes Essay Ecclesiastes Essay Fatema Begum wav 10100 Professor Wilder 10. 11 . 13 Ecclesiastes On the Hereafter In the book of Ecclesiastes, the Preacher describes all the meaningless luxuries and pleasures of the world. Such worldly pleasures are empty and valueless because one wont be able to take or hold on to it after death. He reveals the dead is unconscious and ones future after death is a mystery, implying there is no life after death. In that sense everything is meaningless in the present life. Thus, the author comes to a conclusion that without God, there is no truth or meaning to life. The eacher of Ecclesiastes looks back at his own life and shares all that he tried to find satisfaction in. From property, women, wealth to wisdom and philosophy he gave himself whatever his heart desired. However, he realized that all pleasures are meaningless. It was Just a temporary distraction. Everything is left behind at death. Same goes for wisdom and knowledge, whats the point of working hard and being wise when the intelligent and ignorant both share the same destiny. Just like the foolish, the wise man too will age and soon be forgotten. Whereas in wealth, its ointless to possess them as well, because after we die, our possessions are to be passed to others. Therefore, being rich or striving to be rich is a waste of time and effort. All these possessions mean nothing in the end, because they will be passed down, as that is the continuous cycle of life and death. Throughout Ecclesiastes, the teacher emphasizes the present, and enjoying life as it is. This indicates that perhaps he didnt believe in an afterlife. He does not directly state that there is no life after death but goes to explain that one should not have any hopes of n afterlife. One should make the best of life because it does not last and death can strike at any time. The author writes it is better to be alive than dead because they lack awareness. He states for the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no further reward, and even the memory of them is forgotten. (Eccles. 9. 5-6)The fact that the author writes dead people have no further reward might mean he does not believe in heaven. Although he does mention heaven in Ecclesiastes quite a few times, he never says thats where all souls all ltimately go. Furthermore, the teacher declares everyone shares the same fate, whether one is wicked or righteous. This signifies that there is no punishment after death or in other words theres no hell. If there is no heaven or hell after death clearly this means no one will be Judged or be held in account for what they have done throughout life. After death, rewards and punishment have come to an end. On Eccles. 9. 10-11, the author says Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with all your might, for in the grave, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning or knowledge nor wisdom. This dismisses the idea of a soul living forever. Its saying work with all your might because once death hits the soul dies and is cut off from all worldly matters. The dead nave no idea whats going on and take no part in anything The living have hope rather than the dead because they no longer contribute to anything. Anyone who is among the living has hope ?even a live dog is better off than a dead lion! (Eccles. 9. 4-5) The author of Ecclesiastes would not have stated all this if he believed that the dead would rise again. He seems to be saying enjoy what you have while you can, because life is not going to last forever. Clearly the author does not believe in an afterlife. The Book of Ecclesiastes addresses the importance of living a meaningful life by placing God in the center of ones heart. Many people strive to be wealthy or educated but that is all meaningless in the authors eyes. He believes strongly in the fact that our accomplishments, wealth, and materials mean nothing after death thus implying there is no afterlife. He concludes by saying enjoy life but always acknowledge and remember God.

Aylitical critique of Post cold war philosophers Fukuyama essays

Aylitical critique of Post cold war philosophers Fukuyama essays The cold war was a time of political and economic insecurities. It was not a battle in the sense of bloodshed but a battle purely of political ideology. It was a battle of political ideas which involved blocs and mini wars fought by the Soviet Unions allies rather than themselves. The United States was politically opposed to a communist ideology and communist influence on third world or less developed countries. These tensions began as early as World War 1, due to the Russians pulling out of the war, and continued to the late 1980s and early 1990s, when a democratic change took over. This time period is considered to be the end of the cold war. There were many articles with differing opinions written at this time. No articles were more notable and risky than Francis Fukuyamas The End of History. Fukuyama stated that history had come to an end in a sense to the emergence of a strong and unbreakable form of western liberal democracy. Fukuyamas ideas will be challenged and also better explained in the following years by other Political Scientists and philosophers such as Huntington, Barber and Sakakibara as just a few to mention. Though Fukuyama has many valid points his article is based purely on speculation. His ideas and Philosophies were so brash and new that he took much criticism but yet still opened up a whole new debate on the future of international politics. The cold war was just at its end. The Soviet Union and communism as a whole was in a bit of a retreat stage. The cold war was beginning to be viewed as the past and liberalism was beginning to be seen as the prevailing and stronger political ideology. The future as with all political struggles was still unsure. Fukuyama boldly stated that liberal democracy will not be superseded by a better or higher form of government. Large ideological battles and debates would be a thing of the past and this would also bring to an end large confli...

ORGANISATION AND BEHAVIOURS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

ORGANISATION AND BEHAVIOURS - Essay Example There are different types of organisational structure, however the three main types are: (1) Functional / Market; (2) Product and Market; and (3) Matrix. The functional/market type of organisational structure is basically categorised under the traditional style of management (Droege 2011). Per definition, it is a kind of structure wherein people are arranged according to the role they perform in the organisation (Brooks 2003). This type of structure is highly hierarchical and bureaucratic because distinctly classifying and separating the job from one to another creates a kind of structure that can be described as top-down authority management. In a functional organisational structure, people are arranged in departments which operate based on certain rules, policies, and standard operating process. Order and discipline are highly valued in this kind of organisation which normally results to a reporting system that usually follows a strictly entwined chain-of-command. However, the grow ing competition that exists in the business arena compels most organisations to expand and adjust to the changing needs of the business. With this circumstance, the purpose of the functional/market structure does not do companies any more justice as this kind of structure usually works well in small scale organisations. Hence, another organisational structure comes into operation and this is the product and market structure. Unlike the functional structure, product and market structure is more diversified and enhanced in terms of providing a quality and speedy decision-making (Droege 2011). Decision-making becomes more efficient and prompt in this organisational structure because the people who work within a certain product, customer, or geographic location are grouped together based on their capabilities, knowledge, and expertise. Compared to the functional structure, the product and market structure does not follow a strict top-down system of reporting, thus lessens pressure and i ncreases work performance. However, one major problem with product and market organisational structure, which is minimised in the functional structure, is that the interest of a particular group can be put ahead of the goals of the entire organisation. Another problem here, which is also not an issue with functional structure, is the fact that creating different groups for different products, costumers, or locations can possibly lead to unnecessary expenses due to duplication of resources. The matrix organisational structure, on the other hand, is perceived to be the most effective kind of management system, specifically for large organisations (Droege 2011). It is basically the combination of the functional and product, or more structures. The matrix structure considers what the organisation requires in order to get the best of both worlds. Unlike the first two structures, the matrix is considered to be the most intricate organisational structure but most effective if properly pull ed off. Not like the product and market structure wherein duplication of resources is an issue, a matrix structure can facilitate sharing of highly specialised employees and equipment. For instance, an employee who is an expert in a particular field can divide his/her time between one project and another. Also, because of this

Sir Richard Bramson and the Virgin Group of Companies Essay

Sir Richard Bramson and the Virgin Group of Companies - Essay Example The success of his prestigious group of companies is a confirmation of his ability to apply the necessary management skills and strategies required for successful businesses. Sir Richard Branson had no initial intentions of becoming an entrepreneur although this did not prevent him from building his status as one of the most successful entrepreneurs globally. Having launched a student magazine at the age of sixteen and managed a student advisory centre, Branson had a background in business establishment and management i.e. habitual entrepreneur (Branson, 2011; Shavinina, 2008: 9-15). However, the success and expansion of the Virgin Group led to incorporation of other business ventures making him a portfolio entrepreneur. Some of the personal entrepreneurial characteristics that have enabled Branson to emerge as an exemplary entrepreneur include his high level of motivation, high levels of self confidence, abundant energy levels and the ability to sustain the entrepreneurial approache s in long term (Branson, 2011). Additionally, he has exhibited his worth as a risk-taker, the ability to set achievable goals, innovation and a problem solver (Bolton and Thompson, 2000). He variably contributed to the entrepreneurial sector through the establishment of a brand image and identity of the Virgin Company in the global markets. The company’s marketing strategies prioritises on the customers; improving loyalty. His management skills have led to the growth of the company to international standards. The employee commitment that the company exhibits indicates that Sir Richard Branson possesses effective employee management skills that keep employees always motivated. The dedicated and united employee team has utilised the business and marketing strategies associated with the business to constantly enable the business improve performance. Application of these strategies in all marketing segments has enhanced the application of innovation in all marketing segments. Ana lysis of the Virgin Group of companies exemplifies the entrepreneurial characteristics of Branson. Entrepreneurship can be defined as a process whereby individuals or group of individuals apply organised efforts in the pursuance of opportunities (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004). An entrepreneur should target to create value and growth through innovation and maintenance of uniqueness. This has been the main factors that have enabled Virgin Group of companies to be successful since its establishment. According to Shavinina (2008), the formation and management of the affiliate companies of the Virgin Group exhibits adherence to the entrepreneurial process. The initial stage of the process involves the exploration of the entrepreneurial context. For instance, the establishment of Virgin Airlines was Branson’s attempt to offer reasonable freight charges for transatlantic flights. The second stage involves identification of the possible opportunities that guarantees competitive advanta ge. The venture is then established once the opportunities are identified paving way to management once all its structures are in place. According to Carmichael (2006), Branson’s skills portrays him as a transformational entrepreneur due to his insistence on maintaining Virgin Group of companies as an organisation characterised by informality and

Advantages of the balance scorecard system Essay Example for Free

Advantages of the balance scorecard system Essay As a non financial measure BSC has significant advantages over the financially focused performance based measurement systems. BSC makes it possible for organizations to develop long term strategies. Because the focus is not only on finances, companies can focus on the business elements the would allow them to create a sustained long term perspective, and therefore assure a longer term financial health. Short term financial yardsticks relies more on accounting, so it runs the risk of neglecting other important areas, such as customer satisfaction. The BSC sees emphasize on better quality and the advantage of  competitive edge provided by its inclusive measurement as equally important, because it is a better forecaster of future financial success. ( Ittner Larcker 2000). Short term forecasting does not consider such elements as new product development non does it encourage innovation. The other advantage is that BSC offers organization the opportunity to announce its objectives and its long term based incentives to the rest of the team. Also it recognizes the importance of intangible assets such human intellects as well as customer loyalty, it recognizes managerial abilities, and the benefits that can accrue  when employees share good relationship with each other. There is no doubt that a lot of organizations are paying attention to their intangible assets. (Ittner larcker 2000). The other important advantage is that it is becoming clearer that BSC could actually be do a better job of forecasting the financial future of an organization. ( Ittner larcker 2000). When companies make investment on customer satisfaction, it has been found to raise financial intake, as well as customer loyalty. This cannot be predicted by a system that focuses only on financial calculations. The BSC helps the organization to bring many corporate programs that are usually disjointed into a single manageable roof. Kaplan and Norton also pointed out that by merely participating in the process of BSC development organizations give themselves an advantage, because they gain a better understanding of the strategy they want to implement. It transforms strategy into performance measures or targets. It helps the company to focus on what it has to do in order to achieve its performance goal. Although the BSC aims to establish a long term strategic process, it is actually brief and  direct to the point because it uses the four perspective to cover essentially all its system. It helps the team to learn because the strategies are regularly discussed. Also BSC is not limited to corporate offices, Kaplan and Norton cited the example of Exxon Mobile, it extended its BSC to all its stations, and they reported significant rise in customer satisfaction. It is important to be able to transfer the strategy to local outlets. And BSC does that. ( Kaplan Norton 2002). As has been discussed on this discourse, there are some disadvantages associated with BSC. For one it is expensive to implement, and it can take a lot of time. Considering the fact that financial measurement only system is measured based on finances only, the BSC does not have a common denominator measurement, and it does not have causal links with the rest of the measuring strategies. The facts are that most companies now report that using financially based measurement system is no longer adequate to formulate their true long term strategy. Emphasis on earnings and accounting returns are no longer persuasive enough in providing the complete picture to organizations. (Ittner Larcker 2000).

The French Revolutionary War of 1848 Essay -- French Revolution of 184

The numerous revolutions and uprisings that took place in Europe at the beginning of the eighteenth century signified the onset of more than a few liberalistic revolutions that shaped this continent’s governance to this date. This revolutionary wave was very significant, as it marked the collapse of traditional authorities and the establishment of more political and democratic forms of government. This year 1848; has been recognized by many as the ‘year of revolution’ because of the great number of political revolutions that took place allover Europe at this time. These 1884 revolutions started of in the French republic before spreading out to the other Western European nations. The 1884 revolutions were very significant to the French republic given the fact through them, the Orleans kingdom authority over France came to an end and the second French republic was born. The 1884 revolutionary war in France was motivated by factors like a disapproval of the political leadership, widespread ideology of nationalism across Europe, and a greater demand for democracy among others. This war lasted only for less than five years, with several thousands of people dead and other thousands being forced into exile. This paper gives a discussion of the origins and causes of these 1848 revolutionary wars in France. History of France Before 1848 1. Ancient France The French nation is thought to have been founded at around 297 AD when the Salian Franks were given the authority to settle in the region occupied by the Batavians, a Germanic tribe during the era of the Gallic wars. The first king from the historical information was Clodio who began his reign at around 426 AD. However, it was not until the early nineteenth century that Franc... ...48: Revolution and Reform. New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 2001. Fortescue, William. France and 1848: The End of Monarchy. Abingdon, Oxiford: Routledge, 2005. Hessels, John. Lex Salica: The Ten Texts with the Glosses, and the Lex Emendata. London: Adamant Media, 2005. Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe: from the Renaissance to the present, 3rd edition. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2010. Rao, Raghavendra. History of Modern Europe Ad 1789-2002. New York, NY: Sterling Publishers Pvt, 2005. Roberts, Williams. France: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing, 2004. Sperber, Jonathan. The European Revolutions, 1848-1851. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Winders, James. European Culture since 1848: From Modern to Postmodern and Beyond. Sydney, NSW: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.

Language Planning and Language Development Essay

Language is a typically human phenomenon. In moving from the ‘natural being’ of animal existence to the ‘cultural being’ of human existence, language plays the decisive role. Language gives a sense of identity to an individual as well as a social group and, in the process, creates multiple identities. The maintenance, merger, clash and change in identities based on and reflected in the language change has prompted linguists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and political scientists to study language in its multifarious dimensions. Since economic and societal planning have to, of necessity, take into account the context of planning, there is no wonder that worldwide attention has been drawn towards language planning. Language is an asset and a primary instrument of human communication. However, language can become a problem and a barrier to communication, sometimes symbolically so, under conditions of multiplicity of ethnic groups, languages, dialects, styles, registers and scripts. These conditions may lead to one or more of the following situations which necessitate language planning : (i) Mutually unintelligible language, dialects or scripts competing for supremacy of dominance (ii) Mutually intelligible languages, dialects or scripts, (a) threatening mutual identity, (b) with mutually unfavorable attitudes. (iii) Existence of diglossia, triglossia or multiglossia. (iv) Existence of languages with dominant/minority relationship with a national frontier. (v) Social variables correlating with language use and creating communication zones. (vi) Official action in recognising official languages, distributing patronages for development of languages which may even have the remote implication of displacing or disturbing in reality or symbolically, the existing domains of language use. (vii) Language used by the politicised elite to retain their elitist privileges by restricting language use in education, administration and mass media. There is an urgent need for serious attention to language planning in a country like India. The following examples are illustrative of situations which demand the attention of educationists and planners to the crucial importance of language in society. 1. Sometime back, the Physics Department of the Aligarh University administered a standardised creativity test to the high achievers of the University. To their great surprise they found the result absolutely erratic. After hurried consultations among the scientists involved, it was decided to translate the test into Hindi—Urdu, the mother tongue of the students taking the test. It is only then that the test yielded the expected standard result2. 2. A very significant programme, the preparation of a Bridge Course in Kannada, was undertaken by the Central Institute of Indian Languages some years back. From experience and observation the Institute came to a few conclusions: 1. Language teaching, particularly that of teaching the mother tongue in the Indian schools, is defective 2. What is taught in the name of language is literature. 3. The teaching of literature is restricted to the teaching of ancient and medieval literature and seldom touches the contemporary. 4. Even in literature, more emphasis is given to teaching about literature than really teaching literary sensibility and critical judgment. 5. No attention is paid to the teaching of different registers. 6. As a result, there is a gap between the language attainment at the end of the school stage and the language requirement at the beginning of the college stage, particularly when taught through the mother tongue medium. As a result of this, the students cannot cope with their college studies. Some 900 students selected from three Universities of Karnataka were given a pre-test. A hundred-hour Bridge Course developed by the Institute was offered to an experimental group of about 400 students and a post-test given to all the 900. It was established that the hypotheses suggested by the institute were valid and that, pending revision of the school curriculum, the Bridge Course was of immediate necessity, particularly in the context of switchover to the mother tongue medium at the University stage (Upadhyaya 1972 and Dave 1974). 3. In Nagaland, there are 22 mutually unintelligible Naga languages, of which 16 recognised by the State Government. The language of communication among the people is Pidgin Naga, which is used even in the floor of the Assembly, though not an officially recognised language. In the absence of an acceptable common language, the State Government has adopted English as the State Language (Sreedhar 1974). This has not only created a wide gulf among the elite and the masses of people, but also deprived the common man from effectively participating in the processes of governance of the State. 4. The widespread radio network in the country has shrunk distances. The growing television network has demonstrated the potential of revolutionising communication in a very short time. However, out of the 1652 mother tongues of the country, broadcasting is not done even in 150. Broadcasting in languages other than the 15 major languages is meant mostly either for entertainment, or for purposes catering to peripheral interests of the listeners. The television is much more restricted in the coverage. Under these circumstances, in spite of all the outer-trappings, the message broadcast over the mass media reaches a very restricted audience (Pattanayak 1974). A study of the language of newspapers and that of the film is bound to reinforce the above conclusion. 5. Illiteracy is a major problem of the country (Pattanayak 1974). Out of 800 million illiterates in the world, India is credited to have 400 million . if in eradicating illiteracy the intention is to move from a ‘culture of silence’ to a ‘culture of thinking’ participation and the emphasis is on the creation of an intelligent task force for economic and industrial development, then, urgent and bold steps need to be taken in this area. Literacy in a multilingual must be based on the expressed needs of a people3. Secondly, the language of literacy has to be determined keeping in view the various contexts of language use and strategies linking the languages of literacy with that of education and administration. It would thus be quite clear that whether it is in the field of language use in education, language use in administration or in mass media, there is a constant need to weigh alternatives and plan action. The examples cited above are as true of any multi lingual country as they are of India. Such examples not only establish the necessity for language planning, but also the need to analyse its process and product. Before talking about language planning, one must understand the motivation and mechanisms of planning. Planning is not merely a catalogue of resources and the organisation and mobilization of these resources to reach a certain defined goal. Since the technocrat is seldom the decision maker, it is important that the planner provides alternatives and options are given, the goal is stated and the strategies are spelled out the politician-decision maker can take a decision. The two aims of planning are growth promotion and environment amelioration. Here, environment is not used merely in the physical ecological sense, but is used in the sense of sociocultural context of the individuals in society. It is most unfortunate that the pre-occupation with economics as the only discipline of concern of planning blinded the planners to its equally important second aspect of planning. Those who are obsessed with growth and economic development take the social and cultural imperatives for granted. Like the textbook and laboratory controlled experiments, where all other conditions being equal a certain conclusion flows out of it, the economic planner takes the context of planning for granted and concentrates on the economic planning. He forgets that in actual life all the conditions seldom remain equal and that the context in which social problems are nurtured is as important as the problems themselves. Planning is not merely a balance sheet of inputs and outputs. That input-output statements of growth have to be checked against cost benefit to the society, need to be emphasised more, if planning is not to defeat its own purpose. Language planning does not merely entail drawing a list of mother tongues spoken in a defined territory, nor does it merely mean listing of their actual and desired domains of use. Whether in a unilingual or in a plurilingual society, language planning is essential to deal with such problems of dialect, language standard, all aspects of language development and the contexts of language use are areas of concern of a language planner. It would be much more meaningful and sensible to talk of relatively unitary and pluralilstic societies, as the great divide seems to be unitary and pluralilstic rather than developed and developing in the context of language planning. In pluralistic societies, choices, options and alternatives are imperatives of planning, as the basis of pluralism is transparent and easily manipulated. Speaking of language development, Khubchandani (1975:102) offers the following framework which accepts the distinction between developed and undeveloped languages: Dimension Developed Language Undeveloped Language Range of communication Wide,Sometimes multinational. Limited to region. Ecological status. Spoken by dominant majorities. Spoken by dominant minorities. Domian of use. All. Restricted as with vernaculars. Writing system Present. May not be present. Literary status With literary traditions. Colloquial, bazar languages. Social prestige Standard language, acceptable to the elite. Non-standard or sub-standard: slangs, hybrids This is too simplistic a model. Following this one can argue that the major (scheduled) languages of India are both developed and un-developed and they are neither developed nor un-developed. One can say that, barring their restricted domain of use, they fulfill all the criteria of developed language. At the same time, looking at the situation from national and international perspective, one can say that, being diglossic, they have all the features of undeveloped, whereas in Latin America, the major language is developed and the minority (such as Indian) languages are undeveloped. If one takes the case of English alone, this scheme will lead to untenable conclusions. Actually such a schematic presentation conceals and confuses issues rather than clarifies them. Ferguson’s criteria (Fishman 1968 : 28) of a developed language, inter-translatablity with languages in the industrial society, is ethnocentric. One may wish to give the benefit of doubt by saying that the industrial so ciety probably has developed the most varied registers of the language used. But, in the agricultural society, certain contemplative disciplines have flourished which may not have found place in the industrial society. In any case, there is no reason why value judgement about a society need be bodily transferred into the discussion of language use without establishing its relevance to such discussions. What, then, is language development? Can a language be developed by a language planning society ? One popular notion of a developed language is its antiquity. Languages which are older are generally considered more developed. Scholars of history of language and literature in all Indian languages usually devote considerable space and time to this aspect of the question. Another popular notion is linked with the availability of creative literature in a language. Thus, a quarrel whether Bengali or Tamil is more developed has resulted in a lot of unproductive debate. A corollary of this stand is the rejection of spoken languages as languages and give them a grudging recognition as dialects. Scholars have even gone to the extent of saying that Saora has only 700 words, and therefore it does not deserve the status of a language, thus putting the premium on the vocabulary. Presentation of a norm or standard where competing varieties of a language exist is a primary step in language development. This can be achieved by standardising spelling, writing grammars, dictionaries, textbooks, etc. Developing a script for non-literate languages forms a legitimate concern of language is another major concern of language development. This is best achieved by promoting new registral writing, creating technical terminology, and encouraging translation, etc. In a multilingual society, allocation of domains of use to each language and ensuring its increased or decreased use for specific domains forms part of the study of language development. Language planning agencies, endowed with sufficient technical expertise, and executive power, and certainly do a great deal to influence language development, and, through planning, help reduce conflict and tension. The problems in a linguistically plural society are complex, the options are competitive and the goal is difficult to perceive, because of the volotile nature of the context of language use. It must be understood that no language or culture group is absolutely unitary or monolithic in nature. For example, all persons speaking English do neither speak a uniform language nor do they share a single culture. Even all English speakers in England or America cannot be so classified. Communication facilities, ethnicity, religious grouping, uneven opportunities leading to uneven education and cultural development are some of the parameters which account for regional linguistic differences even where a single language is dominant. In the past, linguists assumed a uniform and invariant structure of language. At the present moment it is generally accepted that the speech matrix of a community is constituted of varieties of varieties of the language. These are generally treated under rubrics of style, register, dialect, sociolect, etc. While in a single dominant language society, the different varieties tend to have specialised functions, in a multilingual society, in addition to varieties of mother tongue, one or more other languages share the communicative domain. When there are people using different languages and different varieties of a language, it is natural that they develop certain attit udes towards each other. These attitudes indicate social ranking and relative status of groups and also intergroup cohesiveness or lack of it within a broad framework. Each person considers his language to be the paragon of beauty and sweetest sounding of all. The neighbour’s language usually comes in for a drubbing. The neighbour with whom one comes in constant communication, competes for socio-economic advantages, trades and establishes other societal relationship, naturally exerts a lot of linguistic influence. The nature of this influence depends on many factors, the important one being the political-economic power of the communities concerned. A Telugu speaker calls Tamil by the given name ‘Aravam’, meaning ‘sound not sweet to hear’. The neighbour’s language is described in many languages as the sound of pebbles in a tin drum or sounds coming from a mouth filled with pan. One’s own language is like peeled sweet banana, sweet as sugar and like nectar. When so expressed the unconscious feelings are expressed as conscious attitudes. The epithet of Devabhasha ‘language of the gods’ brought out the retort from the Maharashtra saint poet, ‘If Sanskrit is the language of gods, is Prakrit the language of thieves ?’ All such overt attitudinal statements are grist in the mill of the linguist and the language planner. The above attitudes are not strictly confined to interlingual relationships. Attitudes of dialect speakers of one language towards each other may result either in consolidation and standardization of the language, or separation and split of a language. The notion of dialect may or may not have a pejorative connotation for the for the standard language speaker, but, for the dialect speaker, it is related to local pride. Any effort at standardisation must take this factor of local pride into consideration. A study of dialects of Hindi in India alone will provide examples of both consolidation and separation. As attitudes towards others’ language have serious sociolinguistic implications, so has one’s attitude towards one’s own language. A derogatory attitude or a sense of deficiency towards one’s own language results in the looking for an external standard, acceptance of a culture language or even language loss. The Canadian French speakers looking towards Parisian French, the Caribbean Hindi speaker, the Ceylonese Tamil speaker and the Malayalee settlers in Hon Kong looking towards India, for standards is the result of a feeling of deficiency by the speakers of those languages outside their homeland. Non-literate minority languages adopting a dominant language for almost all purposes other than home use, as in the case of Kannada for Tulu, Kodagu and Marathi or Kannada for Konkani in India, are examples of culture languages. Examples of loss of language due to weakened loyalty can be found almost in all parts of the world. In India various tribal languages which are lost because of the modernising thhrust of various dominant languages may be taken as examples. Sometimes loyalty towards one’s own language is shaken due to induced circumstances. For example, the team roller publicity in favour of American white English and standard is responsible not only for the lack of confidence in the native black and brown speakers of English about the standard of their mother tongue in the USA itself, but also for the lack of faith of the non-English world in Asia and Africa in the non-white speakers, including native speakers of English of Latin American origin in the USA as class room models. As would be clear by now, although language planning in some form is needed in al societies, the need for it is greater in a muitllingual society where the problem of communication is complex, and confronts the speaker with multiple options. Linguists have conceived of primary, secondary and tertiary speech communities on the basis of communicatory situations linking the National languagewith the secondary and the international language with tertiary (Haugen 1972:166). But such a simplified model is inadequate to explain the situation in multilingual societies in general and Indian situation in particular. Take for example, a group of Dravidian and Munda language speakers using a common code, Desia, for communication, which is a dialect of Oriya, an Indo-Aryan language. Oriya as a language has dialects which shade of into Marathi, Hindi or Bengali. If one measures the country in any direction on a straight line with points at short intervals, it will be quite evident that there is break in communication only at the extreme points of the scale. Viewed from on angle, there is ‘partial understanding’ among contiguous speech communities in India; viewed from the other, there is Switzerland – like tertiary speech communities among whom interpreters are needed as there is no of creation and change of primary language loyalties, the process of a group transcending the primordial linguistic loyalty through and identities, sub-national or national, is concealed in these simplified models. Because of ethnic cohesiveness and consequent density in communication, at the intermediate contiguous points even languages belonging to two different families are found to share a common grammar. Gumperz (1971 ; 255) has pointed out that the bilinguals in the border of Maharashtra and Karnataka operate with a single grammar and move from one language to the other through a set of transformation rules. It is not always that a third language is used as a common code. In the cases of Konkani : Marathi : Tulu : Kannada, the former has adopted the latter as culture languages, thus allocating the culture language the domain of formal commuinication. All these call for a re-examination of notions like national language, George Puttenham’s comment (1589) â€Å"After a speech is fully fashioned to the common understanding, and accepted by consent of a whole country and nation, it is called a language† is a poor definition both of nation and of language. In a nation like India, where there are languages of all India importance, languages of regional importance and languages of local importance, all the 1652 mother tongues, listed by the Census are national languages. This includes the so-called foreign mother tongues which have become part of the national cultural heritage of the country. It must be understood in this connection that ‘nation’ is a political concept. A political entity becoming a nation faces the challenge of developing a sense of nationalism among all the people inhabiting it. If already a majority of people have imbibed the spirit of nationalism, the task is to persuade the minority to accept the national goals set by the majority. In a nation inhabited by people of diverse ethnicity and language without a dominant group, a national outlook has to emerge through consensus. This requires coherence between the local group needs and national needs, between micro-planning, and macro-planning, and between economic development and political development. In short, it requires coherence between economic development through planning and socio-political context for such developmental planning. The ‘sons of soil theory’ as propounded in different regions of India has to be viewed in this general perspective. In fact, this phenomenon is not peculiar to India. The demands of the French in Canada, the Tamil in Sri Lanka, the Bengalis in the erstwhile Pakistan, the Flemings in Belgium, the various ethnic groups in Philippines, UK, USA and even in the USSR for equal national importance and equal share in development can be subsumed under this rubric. Such theories arise out of micro-planning at its narrowest application and is anti-national in both approach and content. India as a nation can be viewed as constituting a single soil, Maharshtra or Tamil Nadu may be viewed as disparate entities and independent soils. Within Maharashtra. Vidarbha and Marathwada claim independent soil status, whereas Marathas, not to speak of the backward classes, are not even given equal treatment with Brahmins in the same soil. Under these circumstances ‘sons of soil’ is n ot only a pernicious doctrine, but any planning based only on such considerations without reference to macro-planning is bound to defeat the very purpose of planning. Those who plead for sons of soil theory, often due to lsck of perspective, draw strength and support from notion such as situation-bound language planning (Khubchandani 1975). In a nation state with pluri-lingual society, it is important to be aware of the local needs as well as the national needs. Exclusive concern either with the dominant or the minority without reference to the other is bound to hurt both and destroy the society. Neighbourhood is important and of immediate relevance to all; but extension of the neighbourhood or at least the awareness of its extended frontiers so as to reach out to the national frontiers is of equal importance from the point of view of the existence of a nation. If there is no coherence between a speech area and a language area, then it is bound to create conflict. Language planning and language development, to be effective, must have the twin focus on micro and micro level needs, aspirations and resources. The Western view is liner and binary whereas the Eastern is cyclical and spiral. However, the westernised eastern elites, who are in charge of planning, follow essentially the Western world view. That is why, all language problems are reduced to binary oppositions such as English:Hindi; Hindi:Urdu; Hindi:Indian languages, etc; and all integrative solutions elude them. ‘Unity in diversity’ is so worn out through constant use that it is often rejected as a cliche. And yet if language planning is to be achieved without coercion in a multilingual, multi-ethnic society, it has to be viewed in the grand design offered by Gandhi in his concept of the ‘oceanic circle’. In this structure, composed of innumerable speech communities, â€Å"life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual†, always ready to defend and enrich his mother tongue, each speech community ready to defend and enrich the standard, the superposed or the culture language, each such group ready to defend, enrich and sacrifice for the regional dominant language and the latter ready to defend, enrich and sacrifice for the link language, national language or language and languages of national and international integration, â€Å"till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in arrogance, but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral unit†. NOTE 1. These multiple identities may be both multi-lingualism in the mother tongue and plurilingualism in the sense of different language use. See : wandruszka, Mario, Interlinguistics-Outlines of the New Linguistics. Education; Vol. 12. Institute for Scientific Co-operation, Tubingen, Landhausstr. 18, FRG, 76 ff. 2. Personal communication from Prof. Rais Ahmed, formerly Professor of Physics, Aligarh Muslim University, and later Director, NCERT, New Delhi. 3. Ph.D. thesis of Daniel Moulton in the University of Texas based on his field work in Andhra Pradesh, India under supervision of the author.

Industrial Policy

INDUSTRIAL POLICY SINCE 1956 When India achieved Independence in 1947, the national consensus was in favour of rapid industrialization of the economy which was seen not only as the key to economic development but also to economic sovereignty. In the subsequent years, India's Industrial Policy evolved through successive Industrial Policy Resolutions and Industrial Policy Statements. Specific priorities for industrial development were also laid down in the successive Five Year Plans.Building on the so-called â€Å"Bombay Plan†1 in the pre-Independence era, the first Industrial Policy Resolution announced in 1948 laid down broad contours of the strategy of industrial development. At that time the Constitution of India had not taken final shape nor was the Planning Commission constituted. Moreover, the necessary legal framework was also not put in place. Not surprisingly therefore, the Resolution was somewhat broad in its scope and direction. Yet, an important distinction was made among industries to be kept under the exclusive ownership of Government, i. e. the public sector, those reserved for private sector and the joint sector. Subsequently, the Indian Constitution was adopted in January 1950, the Planning Commission was constituted in March 1950 and the Industrial (Department and Regulation) Act (IDR Act) was enacted in 1951 with the objective of empowering the Government to take necessary steps to regulate the pattern of industrial development through licensing. This paved the way for the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, which was the first comprehensive statement on the strategy for industrial development in India.Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was shaped by the Mahalanobis Model of growth, which suggested that emphasis on heavy industries would lead the economy towards a long term higher growth path. The Resolution widened the scope of the public sector. The objective was to accelerate 1 Bombay Plan prepared by leading Indian industrialists in 1944-45 had recommended government support for industrialization, including a direct role in the production of capital goods. economic growth and boost the process of industrialization as a means to achieving a socialistic pattern of society. Given the scarce capital and inadequate entrepreneurial base, the Resolution accorded a predominant role to the State to assume direct responsibility for industrial development. All industries of basic and strategic importance and those in the nature of public utility services besides those requiring large scale investment were reserved for the public sector.The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 classified industries into three categories. The first category comprised 17 industries (included in Schedule A of the Resolution) exclusively under the domain of the Government. These included inter alia, railways, air transport, arms and ammunition, iron and steel and atomic energy. Th e second category comprised 12 industries (included in Schedule B of the Resolution), which were envisaged to be progressively State owned but private sector was expected to supplement the efforts of the State.The third category contained all the remaining industries and it was expected that private sector would initiate development of these industries but they would remain open for the State as well. It was envisaged that the State would facilitate and encourage development of these industries in the private sector, in accordance with the programmes formulated under the Five Year Plans, by appropriate fiscal measures and ensuring adequate infrastructure. Despite the demarcation of industries into separate categories, the Resolution was flexible enough to allow the required adjustments and modifications in the national interest.Another objective spelt out in the Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was the removal of regional disparities through development of regions with low industrial base. Accordingly, adequate infrastructure for industrial development of such regions was duly emphasized. Given the potential to provide large-scale employment, the Resolution reiterated the Government’s determination to provide all sorts of assistance to small and cottage industries for wider dispersal of the industrial base and more equitable distribution of income.The Resolution, in fact, reflected the prevalent value system of India in the early 1950s, which was centered around self sufficiency in industrial 3 production. The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was a landmark policy statement and it formed the basis of subsequent policy announcements. Industrial Policy Measures in the 1960s and 1970s Monopolies Inquiry Commission (MIC) was set up in 1964 to review various aspects pertaining to concentration of economic power and operations of industrial licensing under the IDR Act, 1951.While emphasizing that the planned economy contributed to the grow th of industry, the Report by MIC concluded that the industrial licensing system enabled big business houses to obtain disproportionately large share of licenses which had led to pre-emption and foreclosure of capacity. Subsequently, the Industrial Licensing Policy Inquiry Committee (Dutt Committee), constituted in 1967, recommended that larger industrial houses should be given licenses only for setting up industry in core and heavy investment sectors, thereby necessitating reorientation of industrial licensing policy.In 1969, the monopolies and restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act was introduced to enable the Government to effectively control concentration of economic power. The Dutt Committee had defined large business houses as those with assets of more than Rs. 350 million. The MRTP Act, 1969 defined large business houses as those with assets of Rs. 200 million and above. Large industries were designated as MRTP companies and were eligible to participate in industries that wer e not reserved for the Government or the Small scale sector.The new Industrial Licensing Policy of 1970 classified industries into four categories. First category, termed as ‘Core Sector’, consisted of basic, critical and strategic industries. Second category termed as ‘Heavy Investment Sector’, comprised projects involving investment of more than Rs. 50 million. The third category, the ‘Middle Sector’ consisted of projects with investment in the range of Rs. 10 million to Rs. 50 million. The fourth category was ‘Delicensed Sector’, in which investment was less than Rs. 0 million and was exempted from licensing requirements. The industrial licensing policy of 1970 4 confined the role of large business houses and foreign companies to the core, heavy and export oriented sectors. The Industrial Policy Statement – 1973 With a view to prevent excessive concentration of industrial activity in the large industrial houses, this Stat ement gave preference to small and medium entrepreneurs over the large houses and foreign companies in setting up of new capacity particularly in the production of mass consumption goods.New undertakings of up to Rs. 10 million by way of fixed assets were exempted from licensing requirements for substantial expansion of assets. This exemption was not allowed to MRTP companies, foreign companies and existing licensed or registered undertakings having fixed assets of Rs. 50 million and above. The Industrial Policy Statement -1977 This Statement emphasized decentralization of industrial sector with increased role for small scale, tiny and cottage industries. It also provided for close interaction between industrial and agricultural sectors.Highest priority was accorded to power generation and transmission. It expanded the list of items reserved for exclusive production in the small scale sector from 180 to more than 500. For the first time, within the small scale sector, a tiny unit wa s defined as a unit with investment in machinery and equipment up to Rs. 0. 1 million and situated in towns or villages with a population of less than 50,000 (as per 1971 census). Basic goods, capital goods, high technology industries important for development of small scale and agriculture sectors were clearly delineated for large scale sector.It was also stated that foreign companies that diluted their foreign equity up to 40 per cent under Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) 1973 were to be treated at par with the Indian companies. The Policy Statement of 1977 also issued a list of industries where no foreign collaboration of financial or technical nature was allowed as indigenous technology was already available. Fully owned foreign companies were allowed only in highly export oriented sectors or sophisticated technology areas. For all approved foreign investments, companies were completely free to repatriate capital and remit profits, dividends, royalties, etc. Further, in o rder to ensure balanced regional development, it was decided not to issue fresh licenses for setting up new industrial units within certain limits of large metropolitan cities (more than 1 million population) and urban areas (more than 0. 5 million population). Industrial Policy Statement -1980 The industrial Policy Statement of 1980 placed accent on promotion of competition in the domestic market, technological upgradatrion and modernization of industries.Some of the socio-economic objectives spelt out in the Statement were i) optimum utilisation of installed capacity, ii) higher productivity, iii) higher employment levels, iv) removal of regional disparities, v) strengthening of agricultural base, vi) promotion of export oriented industries and vi) consumer protection against high prices and poor quality. Policy measures were announced to revive the efficiency of public sector undertakings (PSUs) by developing the management cadres in functional fields viz. operations, finance, ma rketing and information system. An automatic expansion of capacity up to five per cent per annum was allowed, particularly in the core sector and in industries with long-term export potential. Special incentives were granted to industrial units which were engaged in industrial processes and technologies aiming at optimum utilization of energy and the exploitation of alternative sources of energy. In order to boost the development of small scale industries, the investment limit was raised to Rs. 2 million in small scale units and Rs. . 5 million in ancillary units. In the case of tiny units, investment limit was raised to Rs. 0. 2 million. Industrial Policy Measures during the 1980s Policy measures initiated in the first three decades since Independence facilitated the establishment of basic industries and building up of a broadbased infrastructure in the country. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1900), recognized the need for consolidation of these strengths and initiating policy me asures to prepare the Indian industry to respond effectively to emerging challenges. A number of measures were initiated towards technological and managerial modernization to improve productivity, quality and to reduce cost of production. The public sector was freed from a number of constraints and was provided with greater autonomy. There was some progress in the process of deregulation during the 1980s. In 1988, all industries, excepting 26 industries specified in the negative list, were exempted from licensing. The exemption was, however, subject to investment and locational limitations.The automotive industry, cement, cotton spinning, food processing and polyester filament yarn industries witnessed modernization and expanded scales of production during the 1980s. With a view to promote industrialization of backward areas in the country, the Government of India announced in June, 1988 the Growth Centre Scheme under which 71 Growth Centers were proposed to be set up throughout the country. Growth centers were to be endowed with basic infrastructure facilities such as power, water, telecommunications and banking to enable them to attract industries.Industrial Policy Statement- 1991 The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 stated that â€Å"the Government will continue to pursue a sound policy framework encompassing encouragement of entrepreneurship, development of indigenous technology through investment in research and development, bringing in new technology, dismantling of the regulatory system, development of the capital markets and increased competitiveness for the benefit of common man†.It further added that â€Å"the spread of industrialization to backward areas of the country will be actively promoted through appropriate incentives, institutions and infrastructure investments†. The objective of the Industrial Policy Statement – 1991 was to maintain sustained growth in productivity, enhance gainful employment and achieve optimal util ization of human resources, to attain international competitiveness, and to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena. Quite clearly, the focus of the policy was to unshackle the Indian industry from bureaucratic controls. This called for a number of far-reaching reforms : †¢ A substantial modification of Industry Licencing Policy was deemed necessary with a view to ease restraints on capacity creation, respond to emerging domestic and global opportunities by improving productivity. Accordingly, the Policy Statement included abolition of industrial licensing for most industries, barring a handful of industries for reasons of security and trategic concerns, social and environmental issues. Compulsory licencing was required only in respect of 18 industries. These included, inter alia, coal and lignite, distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks, cigars and cigarettes, drugs and pharmaceuticals, white goods, hazardous chemicals. The small scale sector c ontinued to be reserved. Norms for setting up industries (except for industries subject to compulsory licensing) in cities with more than one million population were further liberalised. Recognising the complementarily of domestic and foreign investment, foreign direct investment was accorded a significant role in policy announcements of 1991. Foreign direct investment (FDI) up to 51 per cent foreign equity in high priority industries requiring large investments and advanced technology was permitted. Foreign equity up to 51 per cent was also allowed in trading companies primarily engaged in export activities. These important initiatives were expected to provide a boost to investment besides enabling access to high technology and marketing expertise of foreign companies. With a view to inject technological dynamism in the Indian industry, the Government provided automatic approval for technological agreements related to high priority industries and eased procedures for hiring of fore ign technical expertise. †¢ Major initiatives towards restructuring of public sector units (PSUs) were initiated, in view of their low productivity, over staffing, lack of technological upgradation and low rate of return. In order to raise resources and ensure wider public participation PSUs, it was decided to offer its shareholding stake to mutual funds, financial institutions, general public and workers. Similarly, in order to revive and rehabilitate chronically sick PSUs, it was decided to refer them to the Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR). The Policy also provided for greater managerial autonomy to the Boards of PSUs. †¢ The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 recognized that the Government’s intervention in investment decisions of large companies through MRTP Act had proved to be deleterious for industrial growth.Accordingly, pre-entry scrutiny of investment decisions of MRTP companies was abolished. The thrust of policy was more on cont rolling unfair and restrictive trade practices. The provisions restricting mergers, amalgamations and takeovers were also repealed. Industrial Policy Measures Since 1991 Since 1991, industrial policy measures and procedural simplifications have been reviewed on an ongoing basis. Presently, there are only six industries which require compulsory licensing. Similarly, there are only three industries reserved for the public sector.Some of important policy measures initiated since 1991 are set out below: †¢ Since 1991, promotion of foreign direct investment has been an integral part of India’s economic policy. The Government has ensured a liberal and transparent foreign investment regime where most activities are opened to foreign investment on automatic route without any limit on the extent of foreign ownership. FDI up to 100 per cent has also been allowed under automatic route for most manufacturing activities in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).More recently, in 2004, the FDI limits were raised in the private banking sector (up to 74 per cent), oil exploration (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product marketing (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product pipelines (up to 100 per cent), natural gas and LNG pipelines (up to 100 per cent) and printing of scientific and technical magazines, periodicals and journals (up to 100 per cent). In 9 February 2005, the FDI ceiling in telecom sector in certain services was increased from 49 per cent to 74 per cent. Reservation of items of manufacture exclusively in the small scale sector has been an important tenet of industrial policy. Realizing the increased import competition with the removal of quantitative restrictions since April 2001, the Government has adopted a policy of dereservation and has pruned the list of items reserved for SSI sector gradually from 821 items as at end March 1999 to 506 items as on April 6, 2005. Further, the Union Budget 2005-06 has proposed to dereserve 108 items which were identified by M inistry of Small Scale Industries.The investment limit in plant and machinery of small scale units has been raised by the Government from time to time. To enable some of the small scale units to achieve required economies of scale, a differential investment limit has been adopted for them since October 2001. Presently, there are 41 reserved items which are allowed investment limit up to Rs. 50 million instead of present limit of Rs. 10 million applicable for other small scale units. †¢ Equity participation up to 24 per cent of the total shareholding in small scale units by other industrial undertakings has been llowed. The objective therein has been to enable the small sector to access the capital market and encourage modernization, technological upgradation, ancillarisation, sub-contracting, etc. †¢ Under the framework provided by the Competition Act 2002, the Competition Commission of India was set up in 2003 so as to prevent practices having adverse impact on competitio n in markets. †¢ In an effort to mitigate regional imbalances, the Government announced a new North-East Industrial Policy in December 1997 for promoting industrialization in the North-Eastern region.This policy is applicable for the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. The Policy has provided various concessions to industrial units in the North Eastern Region, e. g. , 10 development of industrial infrastructure, subsidies under various schemes, excise and income-tax exemption for a period of 10 years, etc. North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. has been designated as the nodal disbursing agency under the Scheme. †¢ The focus of disinvestment process of PSUs has shifted from sale of minority stakes to strategic sales.Up to December 2004, PSUs have been divested to an extent of Rs. 478 billion. †¢ Apart from general policy measures, some industry specific measures have also been initiated. For instance, Elec tricity Act 2003 has been enacted which envisaged to delicense power generation and permit captive power plants. It is also intended to facilitate private sector participation in transmission sector and provide open access to grid sector. Various policy measures have facilitated increased private sector participation in key infrastructure sectors such as, telecommunication, roads and ports.Foreign equity participation up to 100 per cent has been allowed in construction and maintenance of roads and bridges. MRTP provisions have been relaxed to encourage private sector financing by large firms in the highway sector. Evidently, in the process of evolution of industrial policy in India, the Government’s intervention has been extensive. Unlike many East Asian countries which used the State intervention to build strong private sector industries, India opted for the State control over key industries in the initial phase of development. In order to promote these industries theGovernm ent not only levied high tariffs and imposed import restrictions, but also subsidized the nationalized firms, directed investment funds to them, and controlled both land use and many prices. In India, there has been a consensus for long on the role of government in providing infrastructure and maintaining stable macroeconomic policies. However, the path to be pursued toward industrial development has evolved over time. The form of government intervention in the development strategy needs to be chosen from the two alternatives: ‘Outward-looking development 1 policies’ encourage not only free trade but also the free movement of capital, workers and enterprises. By contrast, ‘inward-looking development policies’ stress the need for one’s own style of development. India initially adopted the latter strategy. The advocates of import substitution in India believed that we should substitute imports with domestic production of both consumer goods and sophist icated manufactured items while ensuring imposition of high tariffs and quotas on imports.In the long run, these advocates cite the benefits of greater domestic industrial diversification and the ultimate ability to export previously protected manufactured goods, as economies of scale, low labour costs, and the positive externalities of learning by doing cause domestic prices to become more competitive than world prices. However, pursuit of such a policy forced the Indian industry to have low and inferior technology. It did not expose the industry to the rigours of competition and therefore it resulted in low efficiency.The inferior technology and inefficient production practices coupled with focus on traditional sectors choked further expansion of the India industry and thereby limited its ability to expand employment opportunities. Considering these inadequacies, the reforms currently underway aim at infusing the state of the art technology, increasing domestic and external compet ition and diversification of the industrial base so that it can expand and create additional employment opportunities. In retrospect, the Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948 and 1956 reflected the desire of the Indian State to achieve self sufficiency in industrial production.Huge investments by the State in heavy industries were designed to put the Indian industry on a higher long-term growth trajectory. With limited availability of foreign exchange, the effort of the Government was to encourage domestic production. This basic strategy guided industrialization until the mid-1980s. Till the onset of reform process in 1991, industrial licensing played a crucial role in channeling investments, controlling entry and expansion of capacity in the Indian industrial sector. As such industrialization occurred in a protected environment, which led to various distortions.Tariffs and quantitative controls largely kept foreign competition out of the domestic 12 market, and most Indian manufac turers looked on exports only as a residual possibility. Little attention was paid to ensure product quality, undertaking R for technological development and achieving economies of scale. The industrial policy announced in 1991, however, substantially dispensed with industrial licensing and facilitated foreign investment and technology transfers, and threw open the areas hitherto reserved for the public sector.The policy focus in the recent years has been on deregulating the Indian industry, enabling industrial restructuring, allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and providing a business environment that facilitates and fosters overall industrial growth. The future growth of the Indian industry as widely believed, is crucially dependent upon improving the overall productivity of the manufacturing sector, rationalisation of the duty structure, technological upgradation, the search for export markets through promotional efforts and trade agreemen ts and creating an enabling legal environment.Bibliography 1. Ahluwalia, I. J. Productivity and Growth in Indian Manufacturing, Oxford University Press, Delhi , 1991. 2. Government of India Annual Report 2003-04, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 3. Government of India Handbook of Industrial Policy and Statistics (Various Issues), Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 4. Government of India Economic Survey 2004-05, Ministry of Finance. New Delhi

King George III Biography

King George III Biography George III was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland during the American Revolution. Much of his reign, which lasted from 1760 to 1820, was colored by his ongoing problems with mental illness. During the last decade of his life, he was incapacitated to the degree that his eldest son ruled as Prince Regent, giving name to the Regency Era. Fast Facts: King George III Full Name:  George William FrederickKnown For:  King of Great Britain and Ireland during the American Revolution, suffered from acute and debilitating bouts of mental illnessBorn:  June 4, 1738 in London, EnglandDied:  January 29, 1820 in London, EnglandSpouses Name: Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-StrelitzChildren: 15 Early Years Born June 4, 1738, George William Frederick was the grandson of Great Britain’s King George II. His father, Frederick, the Prince of Wales, though estranged from the king, was still the heir apparent to the throne. George’s mother, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Goethe, was the daughter of a Hanoverian duke. Although sickly as a child- George was born two months prematurely- he soon grew stronger, and he and his younger brother Prince Edward moved with their parents to the family home in London’s exclusive Leicester Square. The boys were educated by private tutors, as was common for the children of royalty. Young George was precocious, and he could read and write several languages fluently, as well as discuss politics, science, and history, by the time he was an adolescent. Heritage Images / Getty Images In 1751, when George was thirteen, his father, the Prince of Wales, died unexpectedly, following a pulmonary embolism. Suddenly, George became the Duke of Edinburgh and the heir apparent to the British crown; within three weeks, his grandfather made him Prince of Wales. In 1760, George II passed away at the age of seventy, leaving 22-year-old George III to take the throne. Once he became king, he soon realized it was vital for him to find a suitable wife to bear his sons; the very future of the empire depended on it. Seventeen-year-old Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was the daughter of a duke, privately educated, and had no scandals attached to her name, making her the perfect bride for a king. George and Charlotte did not even meet until their wedding day in 1761. By all reports, the two of them had a mutually respectful marriage; there was no infidelity on either of their parts, and they had fifteen children together. Charlotte and George were avid patrons of the arts, and were especially interested in German music and composers like Handel, Bach, and Mozart. During the first few years of Georges reign, the British Empire was financially shaky, due in part to the aftershocks of the Seven Years War (1756 to 1763). The British colonies were generating little revenue, so strict tax laws and regulations were enacted to bring extra money to the crown coffers. DEA / G. NIMATALLAH / Getty Images Revolution in the Colonies After decades of no representation in Parliament, and resentful of the extra tax burdens, the colonies in North America rebelled. Americas founding fathers famously detailed the transgressions perpetrated against them by the King in the Declaration of Independence: The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.   After a series of setbacks in North America, Georges advisor Lord North, then the Prime Minister, suggested the king take a break from trying to handle the dissent in the colonies. North proposed that Lord Chatham, William Pitt the Elder, step in and take power of oversight. George refused the idea, and North resigned following General Cornwallis defeat at Yorktown. Eventually, George accepted that his armies had been defeated by the colonists, and authorized peace negotiations. Bettmann Archive / Getty Images Mental Illness and the Regency Wealth and status could not protect the king from suffering extreme bouts of mental illness- some so severe that he was incapacitated and unable to make decisions for his realm. George’s mental health issues were well-documented by his equerry, Robert Fulke Greville, and Buckingham Palace. In fact, he was heavily monitored by staff at all times, even while he slept. In 2018, the records were made public for the first time. In 1788, Dr Francis Willis wrote: â€Å"H.M became so ungovernable that recourse was had to the strait waistcoat: His legs were tied, he was secured down across his Breast, in this melancholy situation he was, when I came to make my morning Enquiries.† Scientists and historians have debated for over two centuries about the cause of the famous â€Å"madness.† One 1960s study indicated a link to the hereditary blood disorder porphyria. People suffering from porphyria experience acute anxiety, confusion, and paranoia. However, a 2010 study published in the Journal of Psychiatry concluded that George probably didn’t have porphyria at all. Led by Peter Garrard, professor of neurology at St. George’s University of London, researchers did a linguistic study of George’s correspondences, and determined that he suffered from â€Å"acute mania.† Many of the characteristics of George’s letters during his periods of illness are also seen in the writings and speech of patients today who are in the midst of the manic phase of illnesses like bipolar disorder. Typical symptoms of a manic state are compatible with contemporary accounts of George’s behavior. It is believed that Georges first bout of mental illness surfaced around 1765. He spoke endlessly, often for hours, and sometimes without an audience, causing himself to foam at the mouth and lose his voice. He rarely slept. He shouted unintelligibly at advisors who spoke to him, and wrote lengthy letters to anyone and everyone, with some sentences being hundreds of words long. With the king unable to function effectively, his mother Augusta and  Prime Minister Lord Bute  somehow managed to keep Queen Charlotte unaware of what was happening. In addition, they conspired to keep her ignorant of the Regency Bill, which decreed that in the event of George’s full incapacity, Charlotte herself would then be appointed Regent. Some twenty years later, after the Revolution had ended, George had a relapse. Charlotte was, by now, aware of the existence of the Regency Bill; however, her son, the Prince of Wales, had designs of his own on the Regency. When George recovered in 1789, Charlotte held a ball in honor of the Kings return to health- and deliberately failed to invite her son. However, the two of them formally reconciled in 1791. Although he remained popular with his subjects, George eventually descended into permanent madness, and in 1804, Charlotte moved into separate quarters. George was declared insane in 1811, and agreed to be placed under Charlottes guardianship, which remained in place until Charlottes death in 1818. At the same time, he consented to his empire being placed in the hands of his son, the Prince of Wales, as Prince Regent. Grafissimo / Getty Images Death and Legacy For the last nine years of his life, George lived in seclusion at Windsor Castle. He eventually developed dementia, and didnt seem to understand that he was the king, or that his wife had died. On January 29, 1820, he died, and was buried a month later at Windsor. His son George IV, the Prince Regent, succeeded to the throne, where he reigned for ten years until his own death. In 1837, Georges granddaughter Victoria became Queen. Although the issues addressed in the Declaration of Independence paint George as a tyrant, twentieth-century scholars take a more sympathetic approach, viewing him as a victim of both the changing political landscape and his own mental illness. Sources â€Å"George III.†Ã‚  History.com, AE Television Networks, www.history.com/topics/british-history/george-iii.â€Å"What Was the Truth about the Madness of George III?†Ã‚  BBC News, BBC, 15 Apr. 2013, www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22122407.Yedroudj, Latifa. â€Å"Mad King George III Mental Health Records REVEALED in Buckingham Palace Archives.†Ã‚  Express.co.uk, Express.co.uk, 19 Nov. 2018, www.express.co.uk/news/royal/1047457/royal-news-king-george-III-buckingham-palace-hamilton-royal-family-news.

The Trail of Tears Essay

The Trail of Tears Essay The Trail of Tears Essay The Trail of Tears refers to the forceful relocation and eventual movement of the Native American communities from the South Eastern regions of the U.S. as a result of the enactment of the Indian Removal Act in the year 1830. In the year 1838, in line with Andrew Jacksons policy of the Indians’ removal, the Cherokee community was forced to surrender its land to the east of Mississippi River and migrate to the present day Oklahoma. This journey was referred to as the â€Å"Trail of Tears† mainly due to its devastating effects it had to the Indian people. The migrants faced extreme hunger, diseases and exhaustion due to the forced march while more than 50,000 people died (Cave, 2003). The Trail of Tears resulted in a devastating effect for the Indians such as extreme hunger, diseases and exhaustion due to long walk and massive injustices and abuse of fundamental human rights. According to Perdue (2008), the Trail of Tears is regarded as one of the tragic eras in the U.S. history mainly due to the forceful relocation of the Indians. This is also considered as the beginning of the Indian extermination by the U.S. government even though they had lived in the country several centuries before the white settlers set their foot in America. After the American Revolution and the eventual creation of the U.S., the Indians were regarded as a separate nation within a sovereign country even though they were fully committed to a peaceful coexistence with the white settlers. However, the white settlers were mostly interested in the resources of rich and productive land under the occupation of the Indians. As a result, the U.S. government embarked on a long campaign marked by false promises, broken and false treaties, and threats of military force and racist attitudes to oust the Indians from their native territory. The U.S. government committed a heinous incident in its long history when it passed the Removal Act in the year 1830, which later resulted in the Trail of Tears. The Indians were moved to the west in an exodus that would ensure the new American settlers continued growing and prospering in their new country. The most famous of those forced from their native land by the U.S. government included Five Civilized Tribes comprising of the Choctaw, Cherokee, Seminole, Chickasaw and Creek (Cave, 2003). These tribes constituted the majority of more than 60,000 Indians driven out of their land and they were distinguished from other Indian populations due to their leadership forms and organization. They had functional social systems based on property ownership, government offices and established schools much like in Europe (Perdue, 2008). However, the U.S. government could not recognize them to be civilized enough to be their neighbors necessitating their forceful relocation. The Trail of Tears created a period of immeasurable misery and despair among the Indians who were being relocated against their wishes. In order to relocate the Indian tribes swiftly and effectively, the Indians tribes were prearranged into wretched and miserable traveling caravans. During the trail, the Indians passed through horrible living conditions that were unbearable, for instance, the Indians slept in the mud, lacked shelter and enough food. On the other hand, they were usually forced to march in chains or manacles. In most cases, if the poor living conditions did not kill them, severe disease outbreaks killed most of the Indians. They were plagued with diseases such as dysentery, pneumonia, whooping cough, pellagra and tuberculosis, which usually wiped out entire families (Cave, 2003). Consequently, the Trail of Tears resulted in massive deaths among the Indians apart from damaging the Indian American spirit and self respect. The 1830 Indian Removal act gave President Jackson the power to relocate the Indians under their consent while the act required that they be compensated for the relocation. However, this is not the manner in which the policy was implemented as the government engaged in false treaties with the Indians, broken promises and perpetrated lies while dealing with the Indians (Cave, 2003). The Choctaw Indians in 1831 were the first who were relocated and they became a perfect model for the successful relocations. The Seminole followed the Choctaw in 1832, then the Creek in the year 1834, the Chickasaw Indians in the year 1837, and lastly the Cherokee Indians in 1838. As a result, by 1837, it is estimated that more than 46,000 Native Indians from these southern states had forcefully been relocated from their homelands thus opening about 25 million acres for mainly white settlement (Perdue, 2008). In conclusion, the Trail of Tears is a perfect expression of the U.S. government’s act of inhumanity towards the Indians. The new white settlers in the U.S. had escaped the oppression in Europe and they were obsessed with their new freedoms in America that they easily trampled on the freedom and rights of the Indians. The Trail of Tears resulted in a devastating effect for the Indians who were forced to walk over 1,000 miles to Oklahoma in a trip where they walked without shoes or enough clothing (Perdue, 2008). The food provision was scarce, they suffered from severe diseases and a large number of the Indians died from the harsh conditions and diseases. The U.S. must never forget these shameful and sad moments in its long history with the hope that the country learns from the past, in order to prevent the occurrence of other atrocities similar to the Trail of Tears. Visit our custom essay service to have your essay paper written by professional writers. 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Cause and effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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